MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.

Ultrastructure

Ultrastructure (or ultra-structure) is the detailed structure of a biological specimen, such as a cell, tissue, or organ, that can be observed by electron microscopy. It refers in general to the study of cellular structures that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope.
Ultrastructure, along with molecular phylogeny, has often been a reliable (that is phylogenetic) way of classifying organisms.
Ultra-Structure is also the name given to a notational system for representing complex rules.

GC-content

GC-content (or guanine-cytosine content), in molecular biology, is the percentage of nitrogenous bases on a DNA molecule which are either guanine or cytosine (from a possibility of four different ones, also including adenine and thymine). This may refer to a specific fragment of DNA or RNA, or that of the whole genome. When it refers to a fragment of the genetic material, it may denote the GC-content of part of a gene (domain), single gene, group of genes (or gene clusters) or even a non-coding region. G (guanine) and C (cytosine) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding whereas A (adenine) bonds specifically with T (thymine). The GC pair is bound by three hydrogen bonds and AT paired by two hydrogen bonds, and thus GC pairs are more thermostable compared to the AT pairs. In spite of the higher thermostability conferred to the genetic material, it is envisaged that cells with high GC DNA undergo autolysis, thereby reducing the longitivity of the cell per se.Due to the robustness endowed to the genetic materials in high GC organisms it was commonly believed that the GC content played a vital part in adaptation temperatures, an hypothesis which has recently been refuted.
In PCR experiments, the GC-content of primers are used to determine their annealing temperature to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a higher melting temperature.

Relationship to "molecular -scale" Biological Sciences

Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology , but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. There is not a defined line between these disciplines.
The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component ( one gene). The study of "mutants" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies.
Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA.

Swine Flu - H1N1 influenza virus

Swine influenza (also called swine flu, pigfluenza, hog flu, and pig flu) refers to influenza caused by those strains of influenza virus that usually infect pigs and are called swine influenza virus (SIV).Swine influenza is common in pigs in the midwestern United States, Mexico, Canada, South America, Europe (including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Italy), Kenya, Mainland China, Taiwan, Japan and other parts of eastern Asia.

The 2009 Flu outbreak in humans that is widely known as "Swine Flu" is due to an apparently virulent new strain of influenza A virus subtype H1N1 that is supposed to be derived from one strain of human influenza virus, one strain of avian influenza virus, and two separate strains of swine influenza. The origin of this new strain is unknown, and the World Organization for Animal Health reports that this strain has not been isolated in pigs.It passes with apparent ease from human to human, an ability attributed to an as-yet unidentified mutation.

Symptoms : In humans, the symptoms of swine flu are similar to those of influenza and of influenza-like illness in general, namely chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort.

The time and location of the outbreak is still unknown, but was first detected when flu cases were reported by officials in Mexico. Within days, hundreds more suspected cases were discovered in Mexico, with cases also showing up in the U.S. and several other countries like Spain, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Israel and even parts of Asia like Hongkong and Southkorea.
On April 28, 2009, the director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention confirmed the first official US death of swine flu. Tests confirmed that a 23-month old toddler from Mexico, who was probably infected there, died from the flu while visiting Texas.

As the swine influenza A H1N1 virus is a new virus, no swine flu vaccine is available to prevent infections. Experts are already working on a swine flu vaccine though. It is estimated that the swine flu vaccine won't be ready until sometime around September to November 2009.

visit... http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu for further details.

Mesothelioma - Symptoms n Treatment

Mesothelioma is a form of cancer that is almost always caused by previous exposure to asbestos. In this disease, malignant cells develop in the mesothelium, a protective lining that covers most of the body's internal organs. Its most common site is the pleura i.e the outer lining of the lungs and internal chest wall, but it may also occur in the peritoneum i.e the lining of the abdominal cavity, the heart,the pericardium i.e a sac that surrounds the heart or tunica vaginalis.

Symptoms:

Chest wall pain is common in Mesothelioma.
Pleural effusion, or fluid surrounding the lung .
Shortness of breath .
Fatigue or anemia .
Wheezing, hoarseness, or cough is also seen .
Problems with bowel function and weight loss as in other cancers is also a symptom .
Jaundice, or yellowing of the eyes and skin low blood sugar level pleural effusion ood in the sputum (fluid) coughed up (hemoptysis ) is detected in mesothelioma.

In severe cases, the person may have many tumor masses. The individual may develop a pneumothorax, or collapse of the lung. The disease may metastasize, or spread, to other parts of the body.

Treatment:

There are more treatment possibilities for Mesothelioma cancer than surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy: the clinical trials.

Surgery

Surgery for malignant mesothelioma is divided into a number of sub-classes, which are specially designed to limit the disease for individuals with particular strains of the disease.
The surgical procedure pleurodesis is a distinct technique insofar as it employs a blend of chemicals and/or drugs to create an intentional scar between the layers of the pleura. Post surgery, the space created by the scar must be drained, using either a catheter or chest tube, and is then filled with a chemical which inhibits the accumulation of fluid in the pleura cavity.

Radiation

The second primary medical technique used to fight the development of malignant mesothelioma is radiation where high energy x-rays are used to kill cancer cells.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy involves the use of two or more anticancer drugs which can be administered either orally or through injection that target cancer cells and stop them from dividing and thus prevent their growth.

Malignant mesothelioma is a difficult disease for anyone to bear, however, educating oneself as to the options available is an important step for making the process more manageable.

Swine Flu - H1N1 influenza virus

Swine influenza (also called swine flu, pigfluenza, hog flu, and pig flu) refers to influenza caused by those strains of influenza virus that usually infect pigs and are called swine influenza virus (SIV).Swine influenza is common in pigs in the midwestern United States, Mexico, Canada, South America, Europe (including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Italy), Kenya, Mainland China, Taiwan, Japan and other parts of eastern Asia.

The 2009 Flu outbreak in humans that is widely known as "Swine Flu" is due to an apparently virulent new strain of influenza A virus subtype H1N1 that is supposed to be derived from one strain of human influenza virus, one strain of avian influenza virus, and two separate strains of swine influenza. The origin of this new strain is unknown, and the World Organization for Animal Health reports that this strain has not been isolated in pigs.It passes with apparent ease from human to human, an ability attributed to an as-yet unidentified mutation.

Symptoms : In humans, the symptoms of swine flu are similar to those of influenza and of influenza-like illness in general, namely chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort.

The time and location of the outbreak is still unknown, but was first detected when flu cases were reported by officials in Mexico. Within days, hundreds more suspected cases were discovered in Mexico, with cases also showing up in the U.S. and several other countries like Spain, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Israel and even parts of Asia like Hongkong and Southkorea.
On April 28, 2009, the director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention confirmed the first official US death of swine flu. Tests confirmed that a 23-month old toddler from Mexico, who was probably infected there, died from the flu while visiting Texas.

As the swine influenza A H1N1 virus is a new virus, no swine flu vaccine is available to prevent infections. Experts are already working on a swine flu vaccine though. It is estimated that the swine flu vaccine won't be ready until sometime around September to November 2009.

visit... http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu for further details.